Addressing Water Scarcity in Jordan

Climate change, human activities and demographic pressure are exacerbating water scarcity in Jordan. Rainwater harvesting, water reuse and permaculture are solutions to tackle this issue that can be replicated as adaptation measures to climate change for the water sector.

The Consequences of Water Scarcity

Jordan is among the world’s four most water-scarce countries and it is located in one of the most arid areas of the Middle East. Drought, overexploitation and depletion of underground water reserves and climate change are making the serious shortage of water even worse.
On top of the climatic and geographic aspects, demographic pressures also play an important role. Over the next two decades, the population in Jordan is expected to double. The increase is caused by inflows of migrant workers and by several waves of refugees fleeing the conflicts in the region, most recently from Syria. This puts a significant strain on water resources and the environment.

The inefficient and aging infrastructure for water supply is also among the causes for rapid depletion of water resources in Jordan: around 50% of water is lost in distribution systems. This impacts significantly the water demands from a growing population and a growing economy in the country. This is reflected in the decreasing trend in water resources availability that has long been registered in Jordan. Annual per capita water availability has declined from 3,600 cubic meters in 1946 to145 today.

To face such an issue and increase fresh water supply, the Jordanian government has recently takenook action with the development of two projects: the Disi Aquifer water -conveyance and the Red Sea-Dea Sea pipeline. The Disi water -conveyance became operational in 2013 and transports water to Amman and other Jordanian cities from the Disi Aquifer (located in the country’s southeast). The Red Sea-Dead Sea project got the green light at the end of 2015 and aims at increasing water -supply through seawater desalination

However, even with government strategies and future plans to solve the problem of water shortages, experts still expect a significant increase in the water deficit for all uses. Emergency water rationings to one day a week have been implemented by the Jordanian government since the early 1980s and still recur frequently. This causes limited access and intermittent supply of clean water especially for the remote poor communities in the Jordan Valley and the Highlands Plateau.

The severe weather conditions that characterize this region are reflected by great variation in rainfall distribution within the region. Around 90% of Jordan’s 90,000 square kilometre-wide area receives an average annual rainfall of less than 100 mm while only 3% of the land receives an average annual precipitation of 300 mm or more. Rainfall often occurs at high intensity when crop water requirements are minimal. The total amount of rainfall received by this area largely exceeds all other utilized sources of water in Jordan.

Changes in many extreme weather and climate events, including reduced precipitation, maximum temperature increase, increase of drought/dry days and evaporation have been observed since circa 1950. In the long term, this impact will cause serious soil degradation that could lead to desertification, exacerbating future conditions and worsening the situation of the agriculture sector due to the lack of sufficient water which will affect the income of agricultural workers.

In its contribution to the last UN climate change summit in Paris (COP 21), Jordan underlined that low incomes could ultimately reduce the ability to adapt to climate change. Families would be unable to respond to the pressing needs for replacing traditional water supplies with new methods that require more spending, such as purchasing drinking water from tanks. Water problems will also put key North African and Middle Eastern countries at greater risk of instability and state failure, according to the U.S. National Intelligence Council.

What are Some Sustainable Solutions?

There is a clear increase in climate consciousness within the Jordanian government and among the population. Since 1998, the Jordanian authorities have carried out important first measures to reform both the water and agricultural sectors, while actively promoting resource protection. The Jordanian authorities are also committed to promoting regional cooperation in the fields of water and climate protection as well as raising climate and environment consciousness amongst the population. An example of this commitment is the request for program funding submitted in 2015 by the Jordan Ministries of Planning and International Cooperation and Enhanced Social & Economic Productivity
Program to the Adaptation Fund. This organizsation was established under the Kyoto Protocol and finances projects and programs in developing countries for adaptation to climate change. The Jordanian proposal aims to increase the resilience of poor and vulnerable communities to climate change impacts in Jordan through the implementation of innovative measures in water and agriculture. Rainwater harvesting, wastewater reuse and permaculture are mentioned among the adaptation measures suggested for the water sector in Jordan – as sustainable solutions at local level that can have a direct impact on the population:

Rainwater harvesting

The outstanding role of ancient Middle Eastern cultures in the development of water-harvesting techniques is widely acknowledged. Historical evidence of rainwater collection systems in Jordan to provide water for various domestic uses dates back to 4,000 BC. Several sites in Jordan provide examples of these creations: these include the cut-stone reservoirs of the city of Petra, as well as the underground
cisterns and traditional village houses. Even agriculture systems using rainwater harvesting techniques such as the Roman pools near Ajloun, Madaba and Mwagger are still operational.

The wide range of practices that involve the collection of water from the surfaces where rain falls, and its subsequent accumulation and storage, still plays a fundamental role in ensuring water sustainability in Jordan for its multiple uses, from municipal consumption to agriculture, industry and tourism. Rainwater harvesting can be adapted to local needs and applied to irrigation programs, and implemented to clean, store, and render water available to address domestic demand. Systems for harvesting rainwater could be used to recharge groundwater through the creation of wells. It is estimated that the amount of flood water that is largely lost by evaporation exceeds all the utilized sources of water in the country. This shows how harvesting part of this water should be a priority. Through the use of geographical
information systems, the National Centre for Agricultural Research and Extension identified around 223 localities in the Jordan desert that have huge potential for rainwater harvesting. These sites are mostly located in the north of the country.

Around 223 localities in the Jordan desert that have huge potential for rainwater harvesting

The type of interventions oriented towards the implementation of rainwater harvesting practices ranges from traditional solutions to innovative ones. Among the latter, the “Vallerani system” has proven to hold great potential for optimizing the storage and use of rainwater. This system has been tested since 1997 in Syria and Jordan as well as many North African countries and consists of a mechanical creation of micro basins in which the rain is collected and directed deep underground, significantly increasing water efficiency of agriculture systems. The potential impact of this solution in remote rural areas is extremely significant in ensuring long lasting food security and economic revenues for the local population.

The great variety of ancient water harvesting techniques that have been documented in the region still constitute good examples of how to improve water sustainability. Rooftop harvesting, floodwater diversion systems, rock and earth dams are all suitable solutions for an integrated and efficient use of water resources that in regions characterized by humid climate conditions would be considered non-conventional, while in Jordan they are essential in addressing water scarcity.

The costs for rainwater harvesting vary widely depending on the innovation degree and the complexity of the system adopted. Different solutions can be tailor-made on the basis of locally available materials and the needs of the beneficiaries. They can also be replicated in other parts of Jordan and the Middle East. The costs of these solutions – especially for small villages and communities – are still much lower
than large-scale projects and relatively easy for governments to subsidize.

Water in agriculture

Agriculture only makes up 3.8% of the Jordanian Gross Domestic Product (GDP). Yet agriculture in Jordan consumes more than 53% of the available water resources, as in many other arid to semi-arid regions. Finding a sustainable and long-term solution for the use of water in this sector is therefore absolutely key. In its National Water Strategy 2008-2022 the Jordanian Government recognizes the need to regulate irrigated agriculture in the highlands and that groundwater extraction for agricultural purposes is beyond acceptable limits.

Agriculture in Jordan consumes more than 54% of the available water resources

Wastewater reuse

The Jordanian government has identified wastewater reuse as one of its main actions to reduce the use of fresh water in agriculture. This method shows great potential for agriculture, industry and urban landscapes. Wastewater reuse means treating wastewater to ‘clean’ it and then reuse it for a beneficial purpose. This allows supplies of fresh water to be significantly expanded in communities facing water shortages. Wastewater reuse is becoming more popular throughout the world as a climate change adaptation measure, particularly in arid and semi-arid regions. Reusing treated wastewater to irrigate crops is generally considered an efficient method to free up fresh water for domestic consumption. Reusing water instead of discharging it every day directly augments the total water supply of a country.

The Jordanian Ministry of Water and Irrigation (MWI) aims to increase the volume of recycled wastewater more than fourfold by 2022. This will provide a substantial percentage of the irrigation water in future years. Only about 34% of the total domestic water consumption is treated in wastewater treatment plants, according to 2010 figures. Administrative and technical losses are the main reasons behind the low figure of treated wastewater. Technical losses due to the leakage in water supply networks are estimated around 25-40% of the pumped amount. Additionally, about 40% of residential buildings are not connected to the sewer network.

For the past three decades the plants operating in Jordan to treat water have used less efficient and less costly methods, namely waste stabilization ponds. The result was that many of these plants in Jordan have been overloaded and are not able to meet the quality standards set by the government. This poses a clear risk associated with using treated wastewater to irrigate crops, especially for crops that are eaten
raw. However, thanks to the use of more modern and effective techniques (such as activated sludge and extended aeration) the quality of water in some of the newly operated plants is very high.

This is the case of the new As-Samra wastewater treatment plant, which replaced the old waste stabilization ponds plant in 2008. It is the largest wastewater treatment facility in Jordan. Most of the treated wastewater of the heavily populated cities of Amman and Zarqa is discharged in the Zarqa River and is stored in the King Talal Dam reservoir. The upgrade of the As-Samra wastewater treatment plant improved the quality of the water from the King Talal Dam. It now provides safe reused water for irrigation in the Jordan Valley and also eliminated the odours that were being released from the previous plant.

However, the cost of upgrading waste stabilization ponds to treatment plants is very high. The new As-Samra treatment plant was expected to cost around $150 million. The cost of operating and maintaining these plants is also higher than for waste stabilization ponds. The quality of the new wastewater treatment plants increases the possibilities for new applications of water reuse in Jordan, not only for agriculture but also for industrial and even municipal use, thus decreasing health risks, potential damage to crops and to industrial processes linked to wastewater. The potential of these new techniques therefore needs to be seriously considered, as they can safely expand the supply of water.

Permaculture projects in Jordan

Another interesting way to counter water scarcity and adapt to climate change is permaculture. Permaculture is a branch of ecological engineering, environmental design, construction and Integrated Water Resource Management that develops sustainable architecture, regenerative and self-maintained habitats and agricultural systems that are modelled on natural ecosystems. Permaculture is more than
just organic gardening and farming practices. It integrates growing food, providing energy and building houses to create communities whose lifestyle has less impact on the environment.

The benefits of permaculture were seen in 2008 – two years after the start of a first pilot project in the Jordan Valley. The project turned unproductive land into a farm that successfully cultivates a large amount of vegetables and fruit trees with more efficient water consumption compared to traditional agriculture. Water salinity in the soil was reduced. Looking at the broader picture, after 2 years the farm had attracted a wide and diverse range of native animals and local species of plants that were not present at the beginning of the project. Local communities were both involved and interested in the project.

The project submitted in 2015 by the Jordanian government to the Adaptation Fund (see above) included permaculture amongst the proposed actions. The primary goal is to demonstrate the potential for improving the livelihood and living conditions of people in the Jordan Valley using low-cost and low-tech approaches. In many successfully implemented projects the results show that the application of permaculture methods and introducing permaculture techniques like swales, natural mulching, legume cultivation, can have a positive impact in improving soil properties and reducing soil salinity.

Permaculture can reduce the pressure on the use of water in agriculture also because with the same amount of water for irrigation the production of crops and fruit in the Jordanian permaculture projects was increased. The revegetation of degraded landscapes is fundamental to solving water scarcity. The establishment of more trees and bushes on the surface can help infiltrate water into the underground reserves and increase plants transpiration, which has a significant impact on atmospheric moisture that falls as precipitation.

Conclusion

Jordan is facing dramatic water scarcity. The growing population and the refugee crisis will continue to affect the availability of water. The effects of climate change are expected to worsen water scarcity. Within this fragile context, with high social and environmental stakes, it is fundamental to promote effective policies to reduce risks stemming from water scarcity. A strategy that includes measures such as rainwater harvesting, water reuse and permaculture could help reduce the pressure on Jordanians. Jordan is one of the few countries with a stable political situation in the Middle East and can therefore introduce an effective strategy to counter water scarcity. The Jordanian government supports several programs that move in this direction, and their successful implementation could serve as the leading
example for other countries in the region.